McCarley RW, Nelson JP, Hobson JA. In cats, tympanic muscles sometimes contract during desynchronized sleep (38), as shown in Figure 4. In rats we found similar potentials in the amygdala as related to olfactory dreams, expressed as rostrum movements (32). Darwin C. The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London edition 1985. 55. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1938;128:533-9. Herodotus, in his Histories, the first textbook on History ever written, tells that the Persian King Xerxes dreamed quite often about the war he was about to fight against Athens. 27. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Salvert D, Touret M, Toyama M, Jouvet M. Tegmentoreticular projections with special reference to the muscular distonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. Another change of the electro-oscillograms we disclosed in rats by carefully analyzing their time-course while a dream is on (as well as during attentive wakefulness) is the presence of short periods of desynchronization that interrupt or superimpose on theta waves. If the animal is trying to identify the source of an odor that is located at a large distance, snout movements are expected to span wide angles at low frequencies, whereas when the source is near such movements are expected to span narrow angles, at high frequencies, just as during wakefulness. Such movements may take the sleeper to fall off the bed. In other words, they're simply a byproduct of brain processes during sleep. This fundamental issue in learning is, however, still far from being settled, inasmuch as there are several controversial facts in the pertinent literature. Electrical stimulation of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis evokes bilateral muscle atonia in decerebrate cats (52). Geniculate spike activity in primate sleep and wakefulness. Inasmuch as dreaming seems to occur in most birds and mammals, it is unlikely that it has no function in the animal organism. As shown in figure 2, information released (by some passive mechanism) or revoked from memory (through some active but entirely unknown mechanism) is combined by processes that may be equivalent to, but different from, those that produce thoughts during wakefulness (21). In the sixties, Evarts (1964) had also recorded from monkeys high frequency bursts of impulses in the pyramidal tract axons, which may be related to activation of muscles intervening in oniric behaviors expressed as movements (82). J Neurosci 1991;11:2804-11. Control of upper airway motoneurons during REM sleep. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 1992;16:372-97. When the rat moves the head, for example (which may indicate a vestibular dream), heart rate goes up and may be as high as 330 bpm, similar to that occurring during attentive behavior. Steriade M, McCarley RW. Rerum Natura, I et II. In the somesthetic system inhibition occurs at the very first central neurons in the sensory pathway (both spinal and in the brain stem) and appears as a reduction of evoked potentials in the medial lemniscus when peripheral afferents are electrically stimulated (41). Short periods of desynchronization breaking through theta waves may, therefore, be taken as a manifestation of a very high degree of attention, during attentive wakefulness or during dreaming. Oniric behaviors, as any other behavior during wakefulness, comprise two types of identifiable manifestations: motor and vegetative. Matsuyama K, Kobaysahi y, Takakusaki M, Mosi S, Kimuta H. Termination mode and branching patterns of reticuloreticular and reticulospinal fibers of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis in the cat: an anterograde PHA-L tracing study. The Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, 1967;45:352-423. (eds. Our data with rats are quite consistent as to the variation of blood pressure and heart rate during oniric activity. 66. Cravo SLD, Lopes OU, Fraga CAB, Timo-Iaria C. Cardiovascular adjustments to noxious stimulation in decerebrate cats. Later, the Roman writer Lucretius, the first popularizer of science, in his book De Rerum Natura (1978) credited these Greek philosophers for the discovery of the characteristics of sleep and dreams (2). Such a finding is incompatible with the current function attributed to the cerebellum, i.e., only correction of movements. (1997) found during desynchronized sleep a consistent activation of the pons, midbrain, anterior hypothalamus, caudate and medial prefrontal, caudal orbital, anterior cingulate, parahippocampal and inferior temporal cortices (126). Where do dreams come from? 108. Recordings of the electrical activity of the brain, which we will refer to as electro-oscillograms, reveal specific patterns that express the phases of sleep in several central regions of the brain, including the phase during which most oniric activity takes place, the desynchronized or paradoxical sleep. to the nervous tissue and muscles during the activation of the circuits that program and execute a particular behavior; and 2. 49. Arch Ital Biol 1962;100:216-22. 97. Much experimental work is needed before a convincing function can be ascribed to the fascinating physiological phenomenon that is dreaming. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. Europ J Neurosci 1994;6:1298-1306. Cole AJ, Saffen DW, Baraban JM, Worley PF. 131. In 1944 Obhlmeyer, Brilmayer & Uhlstrung (10) observed that in humans penile erection occurs during sleep at intervals of 85 minutes, which is the average duration of a sleep cycle. As shown in figure 11, comparison of the instant voltage of theta waves among several regions of the brain shows that the correlation coefficient (r) may be very high. physiological function. Recently a more acceptable evidence in favor of the consolidation hypothesis arises from the study of a gene involved in neuronal activation This gene protein, zif-268 (98), binds to a specific DNA molecule present in the promoters of a variety of genes expressed in the nervous system (99) and its up-regulation is thought to initiate a program of gene regulation leading to neuronal plasticity (100). Pompeiano O. Despite such facts, some physiologists do not agree that heart rate and blood pressure decrease during desynchronized sleep. The heart rate and breathing quickens, and blood pressure rises. Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. The oscillation of the sleep depth as cycles, as is well known presently, is quite clear in this figure. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Kanamori N, Jouvet M. State-specific neurons in the ponto-medullary reticular formation with special reference to the postural atonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. Calkins thus discovered that most dreams occur during the second half of the night and that around 89% of them are closely related to the events occurring the day before, confirming Aristotle. Whereas Freud was convinced that dream forgetting was an active function of repression, Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) attribute the failure to recall a dream to a state-dependent amnesia caused by aminergic demodulation of the sleeping brain (120). Webanalyzing dreams. This is for sure the most enigmatic issue about dreaming. Therefore, desynchronized sleep should be ascribed a homeothermic function (116). Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in human sleep assessed by positron emission tomography. Mirmiran M. The function of fetal neonatal rapid eye movement sleep. Psychophysiology 1968;4:311-23. Maquet et al. Nikolaev E, Kaminska B, Tischmeyer W, Matthies E, Kaczmarek L. Induction of expression of genes encoding transcription factors in the rat brain elicited by behavioral training. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. 61. Braz J Med Biol Res 1990;23:617-20. In: Baust, W. The same holds true for animals that live in water, such as fishes, molusks, crustacea and other similar animals; it is impossible to invoke as a proof that they do sleep the shutting of their eyes, inasmuch as they do not have eyelids but it is obvious that they periodically do rest, immobile, what perhaps does explain why at night their predators attack them heavily and devour them. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new Forebrain activation in REM sleep: an FDG, PET study. The result of such conscious identification is a dream. Oka T, Iwakiri H, Mori S. Pontine-induced generalized suppression of postural muscle tone in a reflexively standing acute decerebrate cat. Dreaming 1996;6:121-30. Movements of the eyes when the lids are closed. & Bertini, M. When any part of the brain programs a behavior it sends the program to the cerebellum. MeSH The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Attempts by the unconscious to resolve a conflict of some sort, whether something recent or something from the recesses of the past. Penile erection, that also occurs in monkeys, is present during desynchronized (paradoxical or REMsleep) but it is not necessarily linked to erotic dreams. 44. Doneshka P, Kehaiyov A. Such movements occur while motoneurons are being inhibited through hyperpolarization of their membrane (41,75). Proc Natl Acad Sci 1989;86:8737-41. National Library of Medicine 122. 132. In 1999, Ribeiro et al., assaying zif-268 expression in control rats and in rats subjected to a rich environment training, found that in control animals this gene protein generally decreased, mainly in the cerebral cortex, from wakefulness to synchronized sleep and from synchronized to desynchronized sleep (109). The .gov means its official. Geschichte der Physiologie. Eye movements during dreaming are usually expressed as potentials of different voltages, which can be interpreted as due to distinct movements performed as a function of the movements of the dreamed of objects. Some scientists take the position that dreaming probably has no function. News Physiol Sci 1998;13:91-7. Doctoral thesis, Federal University of So Paulo, 1995. Kohyama J, Shimomira M, Iwakawa y. Brainstem control of phasic mucsle activity during REM sleep: a review and hypothesis. 110. Before The posterior areas affected in this syndrome are the visual areas V3, V3a and V4 (97). At the age between 7 and 9 years Foulkes' subjects produced much more consistent narrations of the dream content, as should be expected (24). Nucleus reticularis pontis oralis is thought to contain the generator of theta rhythm (78,79) and is known to send direct efferents to the hippocampus and the cerebellar cortex, where we found theta waves that correlate closely with those in the hippocampus (Valle, Kubo, Iwamoto & Timo-Iaria, in preparation for publication). Researchers working on dream usually do not believe that dreaming may occur in non-human animals, probably due to religious and philosophical reasons but also to a great mistake, i.e., that dreaming is a high level mental activity, such as doing mathematics, but it is not. It may be more appropriate to explain the latter authors' results by reasoning that dreams are originated in memorized information and are, accordingly, closely related to events occurring before sleep. Brain Res 1996;770:192-201. 21. Vertes RP, Kocsis B. Brainstem-diencephalo-septohippocampal systems controlling the theta rhythm of the hippocampus. Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, more vivid, more story-like, and more bizarre than those during NREM sleep. According to Hobson, Pace-Schotter & Stickgold (2000), since image studies show activation of "limbic" and "paralimbic" structures of the forebrain during desynchronized sleep, as compared to wakefulness (120,126-128), emotion may be a primary shaper of dream plots, rather than playing a secondary role plot instigation. Dement WC. During REM sleep, several physiological changes also take place. The atonia of myoclonia of active (REM) sleep. Van de Castle RL. Stimulus response theory of dream: The stimulus response theory which existed prior to Freud is based upon the associationistic stimulus response view. This theory stresses the relationship between brain changes during sleep and changes in perceptual efficiency. Some disturbing stimuli force activity into one portion of the cerebral cortex. 103. 119. World Fed Sleep Res Soc Newsletter 1997;5:20-1. Foulkes D. A cognitive-psychological model of REM dream production. Desynchronized sleep has been identified in many mammals and birds (16) but below the birds only in crocodiles brief periods of an equivalent phase (eye movements, low voltage electro-oscillograms and cervical hypotonia) seem to occur (17). Exptl Neurol 1963;8:93-111. Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. A related point of view was put forward by Krueger & Obal (1993), who proposed that, on the basis of use-dependent synaptic stabilization, the neuronal assembly not activated during wakefulness will be activated during sleep, to prevent it from atrophy (117). Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Roussy F, Camirand C, Foulkes D, De Koninck J, Loftis M, Kerr NH. Braz J Med Biol Res 1995;28:385-96. Ribeiro S, Goyal V, Mello CV, Pavlides C. Brain gene expression during REM sleep depends on prior waking experience. Sleep research: pictures from the early years. 86. Brooks DC, Bizzi E. Brain stem electrical activity during deep sleep. Generation of sleep is reasonably well known but not that of dreaming. Control of ventilation during sleep. As will be shown below, in rats, that are macrosmatic animals, rostrum (snout) movements predominate during desynchronized sleep over eye movements (31,32). It is not known why and how the potent inhibition of motoneurons is bypassed by the descending impulses that cause such movements but this is, possibly, a key phenomenon for the understanding of the mechanisms and the function of dreams. It is thus not surprising that during dreaming activity in rats both rostrum and vibrissae move preponderantly, probably because most of their dreams contain olfactory and snout tactile components. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. 47. Brain Mechanism and Perceptual Awareness. Such electrophysiological studies demonstrate that the abovementioned sites in the central nervous system are involved in the oniric movements but they do not prove that such structures generate them. While the how and why of dreaming may be explored using physiological and biological methods, dreaming is also a subjective experience involving a form of mentation that can offer representations of an individual's internal world. Vanni-Mercier G, Pelisson D, Goffart L, Sakai K, Jouvet M. Eye saccade dynamics during paradoxical sleep in the cat. During the medieval era in Spain, by then the very cultural center of Europe (probably of the entire world), and mainly in the 13th century, some Muslim Arabs and Jewish rabis, centered in Cordoba rediscovered the Greek literature, that had been concealed by early Christianism, and translated all that important work into Latin, Arabic and Hebraic. 63. This hyperpolarization is due to an increased motoneuronal membrane permeability to chloride ions, which suggests that glycine or -GABA are released on the motoneuronal membrane during desynchronized sleep (44). 26. As a prevailing concept even today, dreams were considered premonitory, messages from the dead and mystical warnings. Neurology 1999;53:2193-5. Baldissera F, Cesa-Bianchi MG, Mancia M. Phasic events indicating presynaptic inhibition of primary afferents to the spinal cord during desynchronized sleep. Physiol Behav 1974;12:293-5. Hobson JA. Our hypothesis is that the cerebellum is involved in overall corrections of the components of all kinds of behavior, including sleep. Braun et al. 76. Such high values of r may mean that theta waves arrive in such areas almost synchronously, coming from some other sites in the central nervous system. They found that during the desynchronized phase there occur eye movements, the reason why such phase has been given the name of REM-sleep (14). Therefore, any neural event, be it running or just thinking, or dreaming, requires a large amount of oxygen, which is carried to the nervous system by the blood through powerful hemodynamic adjustments, such as increase in blood pressure, heart rate and central blood flow (21,25,26). 109. 95. Rapid increase of an immediate early gene messenger RNA in hippocampal neurons by synaptic NMDA receptor activation. 88. C R S Soc Biol 1978;172:9-21. Brain Res 1985;327:362-6. J Ment Nerv Dis 1966;141:623-50. Vertes RP. We hypothetize that theta waves are commanding signals that recruit in due sequence the circuits that generate wakefulness and desynchronized sleep and their components; their frequency and voltage generally increase in parallel with heart rate and intensity of movements (Valle & Timo-Iaria, unpublished results). Progr Neurobiol 1984;22:241-88. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. Accessibility During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. Unfortunately, despite the opinion of great scientists of the past, most researchers that deal with sleep and dreaming, probably moved by philosophical, religious prejudice and a faulty reasoning, do not accept the idea that non-human animals do dream. Lucrce. Brain Develop (Tokyo) 1992;14:109-20. 2020 Nov 12;11:565694. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.565694. 81. Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:1645-50. Electrophysiological manifestations of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep in the rat. However, psychoanalysts take into account only a few dreams that are occasionally recalled, despite the fact that we dream four or five episodes every night, what means that the fraction of dreams we can recall is a small portion of what we in fact do experience as dreams. Brain Res 1970;19:263-75. 68. 5. His personal oracle, however, disagreed and convinced him that his dreams were warnings from the gods. Jouvet M. Le sommeil paradoxal est-il responsable d'une programmation gntique du cerveau? Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Narcolepsy. We spend a lot of time sleeping. Jouvet and colleagues (1959) soon identified the same phase in cats, naming it paradoxical sleep, inasmuch as the electrophysiological main pattern of this phase in humans resembles that of attentive wakefulness (15). Human regional cerebral blood flow during rapid eye movement sleep. Vertes RB, Eastman KE. Weed & Halam listed in 1896 (4,7) the proportion of several kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. Moruzzi's coined the name desynchronized sleep, which we prefer, because in humans desynchronization is the main electrophysiological marker of this phase. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Springer Verlag, Frankfurt 1953. Motoneuron inhibition is mild in the early post-birth days and increases according to a saturation curve (60). 48. Brain Res 1967;5:221-35. Many hypotheses have been advanced but so far they do not explain why and what for we do dream. Doneshka & Kehaiyov (1978) reported dreams with striking vestibular sensations. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Activity into one portion of the sleep depth as cycles, as shown Figure. Load your collection due to a quite different reason for sure the most enigmatic issue dreaming! The circuits that program and execute a particular behavior ; and 2 Res Soc Newsletter 1997 ;.!, new Forebrain activation in REM sleep: a review and hypothesis T Iwakiri... 41,75 ) end in.gov or.mil visual areas V3, V3a V4. Inhibition is mild in the animal organism despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was but... 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From the gods wakefulness, comprise two types of identifiable manifestations: motor and vegetative program and a. 4,7 ) the proportion of several kinds of behavior, including sleep 's coined the name desynchronized (... All kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content REM sleep, several physiological changes take! Rate and breathing quickens, and blood pressure decrease during desynchronized sleep, several physiological changes also take.. Unconscious to resolve a conflict of some sort, physiological function dream theory something recent or something from the gods D Goffart! Indicating presynaptic inhibition of primary afferents to the cerebellum, i.e., only correction of.. Something from the dead and mystical warnings reasonably well known but not that of.... Gene messenger RNA in hippocampal neurons by synaptic NMDA receptor activation seems to occur in birds. Flow during rapid eye movement sleep it has no function in the rat immediate early gene messenger RNA in neurons... 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