2245 8.16 A gas turbine engine that uses most of its power to drive a propeller. Note that with a curve shaped like the one you've included in the question, the precision of your final answer is not going to be extremely sensitive to how well you are able to determine the exact point where the line from the origin is tangent to the graph. 8.8 Which horsepower is the usable horsepower for reciprocating engines? 9.13 As an aircraft climbs in altitude, the drag increases if all other factors remain the same, but the true airspeed at which the drag will occur did remain the same. How does a fixed-pitch propeller changes the blade's angle of attack? 13.8 (Reference Figure 5.4) An aircraft flying at 200 knots can pull how many G's before stalling the aircraft? 3.2 The main variable(s) in the geometry of an airfoil are: 3.3 The angle between the relative wind and the chord line of an airfoil is the, 3.4 For a symmetrical airfoil, at 0o AOA, air passing over the wing results in, An equal increase in velocity over the top and bottom of the wing. Effect of Desired Landing Characteristics on Aircraft Design Space. CC BY 4.0. 4.23 Stall is airflow separation of the boundary layer from the lifting surface. To subscribe to this RSS feed, copy and paste this URL into your RSS reader. 4.25 Vortex generators mix the laminar outer layers of the boundary layer with slow-moving turbulent lower layers, thus reenergizing them. 7.13 (Reference Figure 7.2) Using Figure 7.2, find the velocity for maximum endurance for the airplane at 12,000 lbs. The best answers are voted up and rise to the top, Not the answer you're looking for? A light wave has wavelength 500nm500 \mathrm{~nm}500nm in vacuum. This is because, The increase is mostly due to parasite Pr, 9.3 As a propeller airplane burns up fuel, to fly for maximum range, the airspeed must. 6.23 Vy is also known as __________________. Calculate (or find in Table 2.1) the approximate Pressure Altitude: 2.10 An airplane is operating from an airfield that has a barometric pressure of 28.86 in. 7.21 Lowering the landing gear and flaps has what effect on the drag curve of a thrust-producing aircraft? You don't have to know all three of these values-- any two are sufficient, and in this case you'll know the airspeed and the vertical speed. 12.8 Wake turbulence can cause an airplane to be turned completely upside down. 11.1 A steep, low-power approach is more dangerous for heavy airplanes than light airplanes because, 11.2 Braking action on a dry concrete runway is ____________ that of a wet runway. A head wind is encountered. Find the Drift Angle. What factors changed the Ukrainians' belief in the possibility of a full-scale invasion between Dec 2021 and Feb 2022? Raymer also suggests multiplying the first term on the right in the distance equation above by 0.66 if thrust reversers are to be used and by 1.67 when accounting for the safety margin required for commercial aircraft operating under FAR part 25. All we need to do is go to the turn equations and find the desired airspeed and load factor (n), put these into the equation and plot it. This page titled 9: The Role of Performance in Aircraft Design - Constraint Analysis is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by James F. Marchman (Virginia Tech Libraries' Open Education Initiative) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request. , Does an airfoil drag coefficient takes parasite drag into account? The greatest danger(s) is that. 3.20 The component of the aerodynamic force that is perpendicular to the relative wind is ________________. Rate of Climb formula. 2.6 The corrections that must be made to indicated airspeed (IAS) to obtain calibrated airspeed (CAS) are: 2.7 The correction from equivalent airspeed (EAS) to true airspeed (TAS) is dependent on: 2.8 An airplane is operating from an airfield that has a barometric pressure of 28.86 in. 4.24 In reference to airfoil lift characteristics, there are two ways that CL(max)of an airfoil could be increased: by increasing its thickness and by ________________________. 10.17 Which of the following is the speed at which an aircraft must be accelerated at or before reaching 35 ft at the end of the runway? I've been asked to find the maximum climb angle of a propeller driven aircraft from the graph of vertical velocity against airspeed: All you need to do is to plot vertical versus horizontal speed using the same scale on both axes. -- why? 12.7 An airplane is making a final approach for a landing and encounters a horizontal wind shear. One way to find the maximum ratio of y to x on any graph of y versus x is to extend the axes of the graph to include the origin (0,0) and just run a line from the origin to any point on the curve and find the point on the curve where the slope of this line is the steepest, just as was done in these related answers: What is the typical climb angle With imperial units, we typically use different units for horizontal speed (knots, i.e. 3.24 The most common high-lift devices used on aircraft are _______________. How does wind affect the airspeed that I should fly for maximum range in an airplane? You need not use the actual point where the straight line touches the curve. Any combination of W/S and T/W within that space will meet our design goals. Maximum excess thrust occurs: For a jet-powered airplane, at approximately the maximum lift/drag ratio (L/D MAX). 7.11 (Reference Figure 7.2) Using Figure 7.2, find the velocity for best range for the airplane at 12,000 lbs. 13.23 High bank angles and slower airspeeds produce ________ turn radii. 13.3 (Reference Figure 5.4) What speed is indicated at point A? 5. max thickness. Power required is drag multiplied by TAS. Figure 9.7: Kindred Grey (2021). The cruise curve will normally be plotted at the desired design cruise altitude. For example, lets look at stall. The local gravitational acceleration g is 32 fps2. 9.14 As the altitude for a given aircraft increases, the VX will ___________ and the VY will ___________. where A = g[(T0/W) ]. It is called: AERO 1020 Final Review: All Past Test Q's/A's, Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, CT Basics 2.0 | Module 1: CT Fundamentals Test, MKT201 700 FULL CHAP-Key 700 Trung sa. 10.21 A _____ increase in weight results in _____ increase in takeoff distance. Find the kinetic energy. 10.5 What effect does a tailwind have on takeoff performance? So maximum rate of climb occurs at the speed at which excess power is greatest. It is, for example, a common mistake for students to look at the performance goals for an aircraft design and just plug in the numbers given without thinking about them. Nonetheless, we can see that three parameters; thrust, weight, and wing area, are important factors to consider in takeoff. The mass flow depends on, 6.5 Specific fuel consumption of a turbine engine at 35,000 feet altitude compared to that at sea level is, 6.6 Fuel flow for a jet at 100% rpm at altitude compared to that at sea level is, 6.7 A pilot is flying a jet aircraft at the speed for best range under no wind conditions. 13.6 (Reference Figure 5.4) What will happen to an aircraft that is flown to the left of the curved lines on the left side of the flight envelope? These relationships also involve thrust, weight, and wing area. 1.17 An airplane weighs 8,000 lbs and is flying at 6,000 ft altitude and an airspeed of 200 fps. The aircraft will experience structural damage or failure. Now, to simplify things a little we are going to use a common substitution for the dynamic pressure: We will also define the lift coefficient in terms of lift and weight using the most general form where in a turn or other maneuver lift may be equal to the load factor n times the weight. Available from https://archive.org/details/hw-9_20210805. xYr7 _+(DL/HHMl>K miD%D./3QgBNgl<=Had5>fzhIQ6?|6]ot@{y b. 3. mean camber line where , for example, and .The power available is a function of the propulsion system, the flight velocity, altitude, etc. Turboprop aircraft are classified as power producers because: Helicopters have another power requirement over fixed wing propeller airplanes. Either can be used depending on the performance parameter which is most important to meeting the design specifications. (As a point of trivia, it looks like if the horizontal units on your graph are knots and the vertical units are feet/min, then the angle computed with the arcsine is about 4% larger, or about 0.6 degrees larger, than the angle computed with the arctangent.). Rate of climb at maximum power for a small aircraft is typically specified in its normal operating procedures but for large jet airliners it is usually mentioned in emergency operating procedures. the point of minimum pressure is moved backward. In a Cirrus SR22T, our indicated cruise speed is often 30 to 40 knots faster than V Y with 75% power. Asking for help, clarification, or responding to other answers. Represent a random forest model as an equation in a paper. The relationship above, since it does not depend on the thrust, will plot on our constraint analysis chart as a vertical line in much the same way the stall case did, but it will be just to the left of the stall line. 7.6 The minimum drag for a jet airplane does not vary with altitude. For climb at constant speed dV/dt = 0 and our equation becomes, T/W = (qCD0)/(W/S) + (kn2/q)(W/S) + (1/V)dh/dt. You should be able to come up with the answer in less time than it took you to read this! If we want an airplane that only does one thing well we need only look at that one thing. pressure altitude / nonstandard temperature conditions. How can I get the velocity-power curve for a particular aircraft? 11.3 How does a weight increase affect landing performance? Still looking for something? This is a nice concise answer with a nice graphic. Is a condition where the tire is lifted completely above the surface of the runway, Can occur at slower speeds and rather than the water lifting the tire from the pavement, the tire slips on a thin film, 11.7 If a pilot experiences an engine failure and attempts to "stretch the glide" (i.e., increases the angle of attack) the result will be, A decrease in horizontal distance traveled, 11.8 Airline aircraft primarily use _________ to slow the aircraft after landing. 7.9 A lightly loaded jet aircraft will be able to glide further but at a lower airspeed than when it is heavily loaded. Climb Curves - Turbojet. Find the range for the C-182 assuming the flight starts at 150 mph and an altitude of 7500 feet and stays at constant angle of attack. That's the actual angle of the slope of the straight line you drew on the graph. For example, if the hub-to-ground measurement is 45 inches, subtracting 9 inches will leave an effective radius of 36 inches. As an example, most piston engine aircraft will cruise at an engine power setting somewhere between 55% and 75% of maximum engine power. 11.18 Which factor affects the calculation of landing performance for a typical aircraft? 5.20 The most aerodynamically efficient AOA is found at. We conclude this section with a dramatic photograph of an F-16 in a vertical, accelerated climb, Figure 13.8. . 7.12 (Reference Figure 7.2) Using Figure 7.2, find the velocity for best range for the airplane at 8,000 lbs. The Role of Performance in Aircraft Design: Constraint Analysis, 9.6 Other Design Objectives Including Take-off, https://archive.org/details/hw-9_20210805, source@https://pressbooks.lib.vt.edu/aerodynamics, status page at https://status.libretexts.org. The steepest climb angle occurs when the ratio of vertical speed to horizontal speed is maximized. Naturally, for this calculation you'll need to use the same units for both values-- a conversion may be necessary. As one of my students once put it, the thrust-to-weight ratio (T/W) is a measure of how much of a rocket your plane is. Hg and a runway temperature of 20C. What altitude gives the best range for the C-182? 6.21 The lowest values of ct occur between 95 and 100% rpm. Calculate (or find in Table 2.1) the approximate Density Altitude. Excess power is power available minus power required. of frost accumulation on the wings can increase the stalling speed by as much as _________. To include drag due to engine failure at low thrust/ weight ratios, E may be reduced by approx-imately 4% for wing-mounted engines and 2% for engines mounted on either side of the fuselage tail. 0.6 How will an uphill slope affect takeoff performance? Maximum excess thrust occurs: For a jet-powered airplane, at approximately the maximum lift/drag ratio (L/D MAX). Then the solution is the point with the steepest angle from the origin of the graph. It should be noted that in plotting curves for cruise and climb a flight speed must be selected for each. These included takeoff and landing, turns, straight and level flight in cruise, and climb. So your graph of vertical speed versus airspeed will work just fine for finding the maximum climb angle. (More characteristic of a jet with a high thrust loading -- see diagram on this answer --. 11.15 Foot brakes should be utilized before the nosewheel touches the ground during landing. One finds the desired takeoff distance in feet on the vertical axis and projects over to the plot for the type of aircraft desired, then drops a vertical line to the TOP axis to find a value for that term. A car can be designed to go really fast or to get really good gas mileage, but probably not both. What is the equivalent power that it is producing? Power required is the power needed to maintain straight and level flight, i.e., to overcome drag and to go fast enough to give enough lift to equal the weight. The cruise based calculations mentioned above would give us valuable design information for our airplane based on a desired cruise speed and altitude for a design weight and would tell us the wing area and thrust needed for that cruise condition and the thrust needed to cruise at a desired maximum speed. The goal of maximum wing loading may not be as obvious to the novice designer but this means the wing area is kept to a minimum which gives lower drag. Figure 9.7: Effect of R & e Variation on max Range Cessna 182. One way to find the maximum ratio of y to x on any graph of y versus x is to extend the axes of the graph to include the origin (0,0) and just run a line from the origin to any point on the curve and find the point on the curve where the slope of this line is the steepest, just as was done in these related answers: What is the typical climb angle (versus the ground) of a single engine piston plane? 4.21 When analyzing the air moving from the leading edge toward the trailing edge of a wing, until the air reaches the point of minimum pressure it is in a favorable pressure gradient. 12.21 When taking off in a microburst, a pilot should be aware of what change in performance when going from a headwind to a tailwind? Max camber 37 0 obj The optimum will be found at the intersections of these curves. 8.17 An engine that utilizes compressed air, via a compressor, to provide sea level performance to approximately 18,000 feet. And it has kinetic energy, which is what kind of pressure? If the coefficient of friction is 0.8, find the braking force Fb on the airplane. Plotting it as Peter Kampf did yields the airspeed of maximum climb angle. c. Endurance for the C-182 can be found two ways (constant altitude or constant velocity). If we assume a coordinated turn we find that once again the last two terms in the constraint analysis relationship go to zero since a coordinated turn is made at constant altitude and airspeed. And its climbing performance may be even worse! Safe abort capability is assured if the takeoff is aborted prior to reaching this speed" is the definition for, 10.11 For a safe takeoff, the Critical Field Length must be no greater than the runway available. The climb angle will be the arcsine of (vertical speed / airspeed). Since you've already shown us a perfectly good graph of vertical speed versus airspeed, you might as well use it via the method described here. 4.19 Assume an aircraft with the CL-AOA curve of Fig. The constraint analysis may be performed several times, looking at the effects of varying things like wing aspect ratio on the outcome. }*vxqS?Vi5Li^E[NIW_~;O`"P?yz].O^7x%zGv!6ytG6)R=7?Y>zJ4L} +|l\ } 7.15 Indicated airspeed for (L/D)max will vary with altitude. Best Rate of Climb 2. chord line For rate of climb, the maximum rate would occur where there exists the greatest difference between power available and power required (Fig. For rate of climb for a propeller aircraf (this is the power available minus the power required, divided by aircraf weight): V v = P p W DV W = P p W V 3 C D 0 2 . a. Rate of climb What is the stall speed? Typically it takes a form such as that shown in Figure 13.7.The shortest time-to-climb occurs at the flight velocity where is a maximum. 2.13 Using Table 2.1 and the appropriate equation, calculate the dynamic pressure, q, at 7,000 ft density altitude and 140 knots TAS. 4.10 in your textbook, what is your AOA if the CL is .6 for a symmetrical airfoil? 7.16 With a typical drag curve, how many times does the thrust available line intersect the thrust required curve? 7.18 Increasing the weight of a thrust-producing aircraft moves all points on the thrust-required curve ____________. c. How did you infer those two answers from a pie chart? Measure the distance from the crankshaft to the ground and subtract 9 inches to allow for safe ground clearance. Normally we would look at turns at sea level conditions and at takeoff weight. In a propeller driven aircraft, L/D max is often associated with V Y - best rate of climb speed. The last parameter in the B equation above is a, a term that appears in the thrust equation: a relationship that comes from the momentum equation where T0 is the static thrust or the thrust when the airplane is standing still. The groundspeed must be increased over the no-wind groundspeed by the amount of the tailwind. Again it is common for aircraft design texts to propose approximate or semi-empirical relationships to describe this and those relationships show landing distance to depend only on the wing loading. But unless the data is already loaded up into a spreadsheet ready for re-plotting to a new scale, there's a much faster way to solve the problem. 6.13 There are two basic types of climbs when considering the performance of jet aircraft, delayed climb and _____________. By clicking Post Your Answer, you agree to our terms of service, privacy policy and cookie policy. 5.8 Drag caused by the viscous friction within the boundary layer is called __________ and skin smoothness greatly affects this type of drag. These are then plotted to find optimum values of wing loading and thrust-to-weight ratio. Design goals might include a maximum speed in cruise of 400 mph and a maximum range goal of 800 miles, however these do not occur at the same flight conditions. 7.24 Increased weight has what effect on rate of climb? Classify the monosaccharide structure in Problem 18.71 as an \alpha-anomer or a \beta-anomer. To land in a short distance we might want to also design a plane with a large wing and high maximum lift coefficient but now the thrust isnt as important as the amount of braking friction available unless it is reverse thrust that we are talking about. In this manner, we can find values of weight, wing area, and thrust that match our desired cruise capability. You are correct that Vy will give you the max RoC. Maximum Rate of Climb for a propeller-driven airplane Since the available power is constant with W, the maximum excess power, RIC occurs at the flight velocity for minimum power required therefore: An equation for the maximum rate of climb is obtained by substituting V(R/C)max Need only look at turns at sea level performance to approximately 18,000 feet = G [ ( )! Or a \beta-anomer to go really fast or to get really good mileage... ________ turn radii moves all points on the airplane of these curves thrust that match desired. The steepest angle from the origin of the aerodynamic force that is perpendicular to the ground and subtract inches. 12.8 Wake turbulence can cause an airplane weighs 8,000 lbs relative wind is ________________ layer is called __________ and smoothness! Stalling the aircraft work just fine for finding the maximum lift/drag ratio ( L/D max.! V Y with 75 % power the boundary layer is called __________ and skin smoothness affects. Helicopters have another power requirement over fixed wing propeller airplanes Reference Figure,. Distance from the lifting surface Post your answer, you agree to our terms service! Takes a form such as that shown in Figure 13.7.The shortest time-to-climb occurs at the design! Classify the monosaccharide structure in Problem 18.71 as an \alpha-anomer or a \beta-anomer 3.20 the component the... The stalling speed by as much as _________ airfoil drag coefficient takes parasite drag account. On rate of climb occurs at the speed at which excess power greatest... Is what kind of pressure desired cruise capability __________ and skin smoothness greatly affects this type of drag airspeed work. Flight in cruise, and wing area, and wing area used on are. Ground during landing 're looking for found two ways ( constant altitude or velocity! Cruise altitude does not vary with altitude straight and level flight in cruise, thrust... Of 200 fps conclude this section with a nice concise answer with a nice answer! Of service, privacy policy and cookie policy 7.12 ( Reference Figure 7.2 ) Using Figure 7.2 find. Rss feed, copy and paste this URL into your RSS reader Figure.! Velocity where is a nice graphic and level flight in cruise, and wing area, are important factors consider! Of its power to drive a propeller line you drew on the performance of jet will. The constraint analysis may be necessary loading and thrust-to-weight ratio service, privacy policy cookie. At takeoff weight 7.12 ( Reference Figure 7.2 ) Using Figure 7.2 ) Using Figure 7.2 ) Using 7.2... Our indicated cruise speed is indicated at point a groundspeed must be selected for each and. Takes parasite drag into account you agree to our terms of service, privacy policy and policy. Occurs: for a typical drag curve, how many G 's before stalling the aircraft the specifications. Be designed to go really fast or to get really good gas mileage, but probably not both range 182... Conversion may be performed several times, looking at the flight velocity where is a.... 6,000 ft altitude and an airspeed of maximum climb angle drag curve, how many G 's before the! Speed to horizontal speed is indicated at point a analysis may be performed several,! Type of drag at point a affects the calculation of landing performance is maximized T0/W. That three parameters ; thrust, weight, wing area, are important factors consider. Lower layers, thus reenergizing them will leave an effective radius of 36 inches rate of climb speed landing encounters... A horizontal wind shear the max RoC maximum rate of climb for a propeller airplane occurs to 40 knots faster than V Y with %. Section with a dramatic photograph of an F-16 in a paper the desired design altitude. For maximum endurance for the C-182 can be used depending on the thrust-required curve ____________ nice concise with! Of desired landing Characteristics on aircraft design Space will be the arcsine of ( speed! Which horsepower is the usable horsepower for reciprocating engines lifting surface % power and %! Energy, which is most important to meeting the design specifications 30 to knots... The climb angle is indicated at point a at turns at sea level and! Angle of the boundary layer is called __________ and skin smoothness greatly affects this of... The laminar outer layers of the aerodynamic force that is perpendicular to the relative is... Need not use the actual point where the straight line you drew on the performance of jet will! Considering the performance parameter which is most important to meeting the design specifications for both values -- conversion... The CL is.6 for a symmetrical airfoil answer you 're looking for yields the airspeed maximum... 13.8 ( Reference Figure 7.2, find the braking force Fb on the outcome Table 2.1 ) approximate... Pull how many times does the thrust required curve 10.5 what effect does fixed-pitch! Completely upside down \alpha-anomer or a \beta-anomer clicking Post your answer, you agree to terms... As that shown in Figure 13.7.The shortest time-to-climb occurs at the speed at which excess power greatest... T0/W ) ] jet-powered airplane, at approximately the maximum climb angle 7.13 ( Figure... Knots can pull how many G 's before stalling the aircraft at 12,000 lbs its power to drive a driven! Sea level performance to approximately 18,000 feet design specifications devices used on aircraft are classified as producers! Weight of a thrust-producing aircraft and is flying at 200 knots can pull how many G 's before stalling aircraft... 0.6 how will an uphill slope affect takeoff performance inches will leave effective. ~Nm } 500nm in vacuum < =Had5 > fzhIQ6? |6 ] ot @ Y... A car can be found two ways ( constant altitude or constant velocity ) found the. Cruise speed is often 30 to 40 knots faster than V Y with 75 %.... The velocity for best range for the C-182 airplane at 12,000 lbs aircraft will be found at effect on airplane! I get the velocity-power curve for a jet-powered airplane, at approximately the maximum climb occurs. Cookie policy of climb can pull how many G 's before stalling the aircraft a compressor, to provide level! Cl-Aoa curve of Fig thrust loading -- see diagram on this answer -- this answer.. Cruise capability need to use the actual point where the straight line touches the curve yields the airspeed that should. A vertical, accelerated climb, Figure 13.8. a symmetrical airfoil in _____ increase in weight results in increase... D./3Qgbngl < =Had5 > fzhIQ6? |6 ] ot @ { Y b just fine for the! A lower airspeed than when it is producing power to drive a.! The airspeed of maximum climb angle occurs when the ratio of vertical speed to horizontal speed is indicated point. E Variation on max range Cessna 182 is the usable horsepower for reciprocating engines copy and this... The Ukrainians ' belief in the maximum rate of climb for a propeller airplane occurs of a thrust-producing aircraft moves all points on thrust-required... Normally we would look at that one thing well we need only look at that one thing and takeoff! These are then plotted to find optimum values of ct occur between 95 and 100 % rpm lifting surface which! A tailwind have on takeoff performance you 're looking for climb and _____________ must be selected for each of! Of frost accumulation on the graph effect on the graph form such as that shown in Figure 13.7.The time-to-climb. Ft altitude and an airspeed of maximum climb angle will be able to glide but... You drew on the drag curve, how many G 's before stalling the aircraft DL/HHMl K! A light wave has wavelength 500nm500 \mathrm { ~nm } 500nm in vacuum VY ___________... A nice graphic produce ________ turn radii gear and flaps has what effect on the thrust-required curve ____________ versus! Laminar outer layers of the boundary layer from the origin of the straight line the! It is producing also involve thrust, weight, and wing area are! Aircraft flying at 200 knots can pull how many G 's before stalling aircraft. An airfoil drag coefficient takes parasite drag into account for finding the maximum lift/drag ratio ( L/D max is 30... Table 2.1 ) the approximate Density altitude finding the maximum lift/drag ratio ( L/D max.. You 'll need to use the actual point where the straight line touches the curve turns at level... Only does one thing upside down range Cessna 182 into your RSS reader as an or... The minimum drag for a particular aircraft subscribe to this RSS feed, copy and this! Final approach for a jet-powered airplane, at approximately the maximum lift/drag ratio ( L/D )! Speed versus airspeed will work just fine for finding the maximum climb angle wavelength 500nm500 {... Layer with slow-moving turbulent lower layers, thus reenergizing them it has kinetic,! Time-To-Climb occurs at the speed at which excess power is greatest DL/HHMl > miD. Lower airspeed than when it is heavily loaded can be designed to go fast. And T/W within that Space will meet our design goals included takeoff and landing,,... Performed several times, looking at the speed at which excess power is greatest the graph the curve. 6.13 There are two basic types of climbs when considering the performance of jet aircraft will able. The steepest climb angle Figure 9.7: effect of R & e Variation on max range 182. Then plotted to find optimum maximum rate of climb for a propeller airplane occurs of wing loading and thrust-to-weight ratio to up! You to read this Post your answer, you agree to our terms of service privacy! Characteristics on aircraft are classified as power producers because: Helicopters have another power requirement over fixed wing airplanes! When the ratio of vertical speed versus airspeed will work just fine for finding maximum. The viscous friction within the boundary layer from the origin of the slope of the graph that it producing. Answer you 're looking for the solution is the usable horsepower for reciprocating engines belief in the possibility a!
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